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Chapter 5. On The Trail

Reading Tracks | Tales of Master Trackers | Human Tracks | Blazing Your Trail | Trailing Animals | Animal Footprints | Traces of Birds | Other Marks of Animals and Birds | The Natural Habitat of Animals | The Deer | The Elk and Moose | The Fox | The Rabbit | The Polecat | The Porcupine | The Badger | The Squirrel | Making Plaster Molds of Tracks

READING TRACKS

From the earliest times, reading tracks has been important to man. Animal tracks led him to food and human tracks warned him of enemies or served as a guide, preventing him from getting lost in the wilderness.

Those folks who have remained close to nature and are dependent on nature—today we often arrogantly call them "primitive peoples"—are highly skilled in reading tracks. Most of us, however, no longer have this ability. But while reading tracks is not something we grow up knowing how to do, we can develop and perfect the ability even today.

Begin your tracking lessons on a sunny day and face the sun, so that every uneven spot on the ground will cast a shadow. If you lose a track, mark the last impression, and search in a large circle for the continuation. Notice the peculiarities of the track you are following so you will be able to distinguish it from others you may come across. Mark the path you are following to keep you from losing your bearings in an unfamiliar region while you are concentrating completely on the tracks.

The quality of the tracks depends primarily on the type of earth. Snow, loam and sand hold tracks best. But weather conditions can destroy even the best tracks. If you know what the weather in the area has been, you can determine when the tracks were made. For example, if it has rained you can examine the raindrops that have fallen on the tracks, or if the wind has been blowing, the sprouting grass seeds or dust in the tracks will give you a clue to when they were formed. Grass which has been stepped on lightly straightens up again after a short time. Sunshine hardens tracks.

TALES OF MASTER TRACKERS

Seeing tracks is one thing; being able to read them is something else again. Understanding the story told by tracks is primarily a matter of drawing conclusions. Here are some anecdotes that illustrate this point.

During the Civil War some soldiers looking for a lost comrade asked an Indian boy if he had seen the fellow they were seeking. The boy replied, "Do you mean a tall soldier riding a lame roan horse?"
But when the soldiers asked him where he had seen their lost friend, the Indian answered, "Oh, I haven't seen him at all." Instead, he led the soldiers to a tree where some roan horsehairs stuck to the bark at the spot where the horse had brushed against it. The hoof tracks showed that the horse had limped, because one hoof did not leave as deep an impression as the others, and the steps made with this hoof were not as long. The Indian observed that the rider had been a soldier from the boot prints he left when he dismounted, and concluded that he had been exceptionally tall because a tree branch had broken off at a height that a shorter person could not have reached.

At the turn of the century Lord Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of the Boy Scouts, was the best-known English intelligence officer and spy. One day during the South African War, he was reconnoitering on a broad, grassy plain not far from the Matopo Hills in Southern Rhodesia when he came across almost invisible footprints. Baden-Powell knew that they were still fresh, because the blades of grass had not yet straightened up. From the blades, too, he discovered the direction in which the unknown persons were marching. He followed the tracks until they finally crossed a sand dune. The soft sand clearly showed that some tracks had been made by small, sharply outlined feet taking longer steps. The conclusion: the tracks belonged to women and children. They must have been walking, not running, and the depth of the footprints indicated that the people had been carrying loads.

The tracks went in the direction of the Matopo Hills, about five miles from where Baden-Powell's men were. It was in the Hills that the rebellious Matabele tribe was hiding out. As he continued to follow the tracks, the alert man came across a mahobahoba leaf lying near the trail. In the entire surrounding area there were no such trees—but Baden-Powell knew that mahobahoba trees grew in a village that lay about fifteen miles back. Therefore, he could assume that the women and children of this village had gone into the hills. He also noticed that the leaf was wet, and it smelled of native beer. From this he concluded that the women were carrying beer on their heads in clay jugs which they stoppered, according to their custom, with bundles of leaves. Just such a leaf had fallen to the ground. But the leaf had been found several feet from the footprints, so evidently the wind had carried it there. However, at the moment there was not a bit of wind. On the other hand, a fresh breeze had been blowing a short time before. From this Baden-Powell could tell what time the women and children arrived at the Matopo Hills. He realized that the men would drink the beer right away, before it turned sour in the heat of the day, and then they would be drowsy and unobservant. Therefore, he hastened to press forward and continued to follow the tracks, and he was able to make important observations in the immediate vicinity of the rebellious natives.
Australian aborigines even today retain an ability to read tracks that seems to us fantastic.

A recently reported case concerned a lost four-year-old child in New South Wales. Forty men from the settlement searched in impenetrable underbrush for a whole day, both afoot and on horseback, without finding a single recognizable "footprint." Then a native tracker was sent for, although there seemed to be no discoverable trace on the sun-dried ground. The aborigine circled the house at continually increasing distances. Finally he stopped, and then struck out on a straight path along which he followed mysterious "tracks" which no one else saw: a crushed leaf here, a bent branch there, a little pebble almost unnoticeably moved to one side. He frequently dropped to all fours, and twice he lost the traces on stony ground. But at dusk he led the anxious searchers to the lost child, who lay sleeping propped against a tree trunk.

The keen perceptions of these people can only be explained by their hard battle for existence. Stalking game with stone-age hunting weapons in the Australian wastelands may well have kept their senses awake and sharp, and it probably also enables them to make deductions with such presence of mind. The aborigine does not infer from the tracks merely what animal made them; the traces also reveal to him how large or how old the animal is and whether it is healthy, fresh and in good condition, or sick and tired.

While you may never achieve this skill, handed down through generations, there is much you can learn.

HUMAN TRACKS

The human footprint lets you draw conclusions about many things. Frequently you can decide at first glance whether you are dealing with the print of a man's shoe or a woman's, especially if a woman was wearing high heels. From the size of the shoe you can make a rough guess about the person's height, and his weight may be revealed by the depth of the print in the ground. From the distance between the steps you can tell whether he was walking or running, still another clue to the energy of the person. Short steps and a deep imprint of the front part of the foot indicate that the person in question was carrying a load. The distance between the right and left foot tells you something about the person's width.

Every shoeprint has its characteristic features: the pattern of a rubber sole, missing nails, repairs or heel plates. A footprint rarely appears in isolation. Nearby impressions show if the person was using a cane or an umbrella. Matches, cigar or cigarette butts, the contents of an emptied pipe, or chewing gum wrappers characterize the person more closely.

Even something as impersonal as a bicycle track can reveal all sorts of things. Pebbles and bits of earth, or water and mud in rainy weather are thrown to the rear, supplying evidence of the direction in which a vehicle went. Similarly, a furrow or ridge of earth is pressed out broadly in the direction a bicycle is going. If a bicycle makes a curve, then the wheel tracks form a narrow angle to each other in the direction the bicycle turns.

BLAZING YOUR TRAIL

Many tales of adventure and intrigue tell how a prisoner, being led away by the enemy, manages to leave little signs behind to show his friends where he has been taken.

Similarly, scouts investigating a route far in advance of their troops leave certain signs to direct those following them along the right path.

When you are marking your own trail through woods or field, don't make it obvious by leaving behind scraps of paper. Any greenhorn could read a trail like that, and forest rangers are not very pleased with people who scatter paper around. Your signs should be completely inconspicuous, blending into the surrounding region, and they should be made of materials found in the immediate vicinity: stones, twigs and so forth.

Of course, following such a trail demands close observation. But then you are also sure that those who are not in on the secret will go by without paying attention.

TRAILING ANIMALS

You have to know a great deal about animals, about their habits, and about their individual traits if you want to follow their tracks and come upon them unobserved. First, there are certain rules you must obey at all times:

When following the tracks of game, step lightly and learn how to walk silently on twigs and dried leaves.

Never look an animal in the eye, or it will run away.

Dress inconspicuously so that you do not stand out from the background and make your presence obvious.

Always be careful to sneak up on an animal against the wind. Even when you observe this precaution, don't come too close to an animal if you are sweating a lot. Animals have a very keen sense of smell when it comes to human perspiration. Bathe before going scouting and rub yourself with sorrel leaves to minimize the human scent.

We have talked about animal tracks, but this term is not strictly accurate.

Woodsmen distinguish among traces, tracks and footprints, and only when they have made the distinction do they start to interpret the signs. Tracks are the marks left by big game  such as a moose, boar, antelope or a deer , whereas traces are the prints  of a small game animal such as a fox or a bird.

You may not always be lucky enough to find traces or tracks immediately. Often you will have to be content just to recognize a set of prints , as sportsmen call the imprint of all four feet of an animal. A set of prints calls for careful interpretation. Only occasionally do you have such a clear footprint in front of you that from the single impression you can tell with certainty what animal made it. When you are interpreting tracks, first take in the whole picture, looking at them in their entirety, before concentrating on the details.

The tracks or traces animals make clearly show how they walk. Some small game animals, such as foxes and wildcats, are able, because of their size, to place one paw directly in front of the next, as if they were walking along a tightrope. Others, the big game  animals, set their feet next to each other. These hoofed  animals walk as if straddling a straight line, leaving what are called cross traces .

You will find such prints  when the animal was moving along at an easy, comfortable pace. If the animal was running away or jumping, you'll find sets of prints at intervals. In the case of stags, the prints may be 25 feet apart. The prints of hoofed  big game  animals resemble the prints a rabbit makes.

From the type of traces or tracks you find, you can determine whether you are dealing with a big or small game animal, and whether the animal was springing or just walking along easily. The length of the jumps or the side-to-side distance between hoofprints will tell you something about the size of the animal. The bigger, taller and older an animal is, the greater the distance from side to side (the cross trace). In general female animals have a smaller cross trace.

ANIMAL FOOTPRINTS

You are not likely to come across the footprints of whole-hoofed animals—wild horses for example. The cloven-hoofed animals leave prints of their two-toed hoofs.

Small game animals, such as badgers, rabbits and squirrels, have paws. They walk on the soles of their feet as well as on their toes, and often leave clear imprints of the entire sole and toes.

When you find pawprints, look first to see if the animal has "toenails," that is, whether there are prints of its nails. Badgers and porcupines press their claws into the ground as they walk, but cats and lynxes do not.
Of the big game animals, the deer leaves the smallest tracks. If it is walking undisturbed and easily, the two toes of the hoofs leave a closed imprint. If it is fleeing and jumping (up to 15 feet), it leaves a "rabbit-jump" set of prints. The toes are pressed apart by the force of the jump and imprinted more deeply in the ground than usual. In fact, you will usually find an impression of the dew-claws, the "extra" toes or "false hoofs" higher up on the feet.

Suppose you find "rabbit-jump" prints. From the size of the set of prints, you can eliminate certain animals, but you might narrow your "suspects" to a fox, a deer, or even a rabbit. If the two front footprints are larger, then it was a rabbit. But if all four prints are equally large, you have to search further. Perhaps you can find a print that is clearly impressed. If you see two toes of a hoof, it was a deer. If you see a pawprint, you have to conclude that it was a fox or a rabbit. The problem here will be solved if you can find a stretch with either straight line or straddling prints. If that is not possible, examine the individual prints. The paws of rabbits and foxes are so different (see illustrations of distinguishing characteristics), that it should be impossible to confuse them. Landing from a jump

Landing from a jump

TRACES OF BIRDS

You can find bird traces and wing marks only in the snow, soft sand, or on moist loam.

The thrush usually hops, leaving clawprints in pairs next to each other. Mincing short steps occur when it is waggling along directly toward something. When the thrush takes off from deep snow, it leaves marks with its wings because the large feathers hit the snow as the wings close.

The crow leaves larger traces than the thrush and is found more frequently. Since its legs are turned in somewhat, the crow waddles, and this can be seen in the traces. The marks made by the wings are also more pronounced than those of the thrush.

The jay leaves traces of about the same size as those of the thrush. They are found in pairs, at intervals of about five to six inches. Usually not many traces are found together, for the jay is not a ground bird. On the other hand, it often does leave traces of scratching, as it likes to dig for the squirrels' hidden provisions. The jay also drops feathers, and the blue plumage definitely reveals its presence.

The traces of the partridge approach those of the crow in size, but the toes are spread even farther apart. The partridge leaves cross-traced tracks and also flies up frequently, leaving wing marks which are especially pronounced since it beats its wings strongly when taking off and landing.

A plucking is the name given to a pile of feathers on which bits of skin, legs, or parts of the skull are still hanging. If you come across one, you will know that a bird of prey made the killing, since a marten, a polecat or a fox would have dragged its prey into its den. You can guess at what sort of bird of prey it was by the size of its booty and by the feathers lost in the struggle. Larger birds, from the pigeon to the partridge, fall victim to the hawk. The buzzard eats mice.

OTHER MARKS OF ANIMALS AND BIRDS

You may come across skeleton parts, skull bones and jaws. Some are illustrated on the following pages.

When following tracks that you are trying to interpret, droppings will help you determine what animal has gone by. The condition of the droppings also often throws light on the feeding habits of the animal in question. See the illustrations.

Castings and vomitings also give you valuable clues, but these are not easy to notice. Castings are balls of indigestible bits of food vomited by birds of prey, who devour their food with skin and hair, neglecting only the biggest feathers and parts which are found as pluckings. Castings can be distinguished from droppings by the content of mousehair and bits of bone.

Traces of digging or scratching also provide evidence of the kind of animal you are trailing. Every animal has its own manner of burrowing, scratching, or otherwise deliberately destroying certain irregularities in the ground.

Small game animals often dig themselves a home in the ground, and you can learn to recognize the different kinds of tunnels and burrows.

You may find parts of horns or antlers, too.

THE NATURAL HABITAT OF ANIMALS

If a detective were tracking down a criminal, he would first find out about the man's habits and customs of living so he would have some idea of where to start his search. To track animals, too, you must know about their way of life. It would be most unusual to find a fox in a city park or a badger in the deepest forest, nor would you ever suspect a swamp animal of making tracks in a dry, fallow field. Every animal has its own natural habitat, which of course frequently cuts across those of other animals. In general we have a pretty good idea of where different animals make their homes.

Foxes, rabbits, mice, jays, and birds of prey can be found in or over open countryside.

Deer (up to about 6000 feet), rabbits (mountain hares up to 8000 feet), mice, moles, weasels (up to 8000 feet), and woodchucks can be found in the mountains and hills.

Mice, otters, polecats, mouse-owls, plovers, storks, cranes, wild ducks and geese live near the water.

In the forests and woods you find: Deer, stags, rabbits, squirrels, moles, foxes, badgers, martens, polecats, mice, finches, thrushes, crows, hawks, magpies, pheasants, buzzards, wood-owls, and woodpeckers.

The following live in meadows, fields, and sparsely wooded spots: Rabbits, field mice, hamsters, moles, foxes, weasels, polecats, occasional badgers wandering through, partridges, magpies, buzzards, falcons, crows, mouse-owls, and woodpeckers.

THE DEER

Tracks:

Hoof print: 1/2 natural size.

Shape of Hoof: Oval, smaller than all other hoofed  animals, 3/4 "- 1" long, 11/8"-11/2" wide. Dewclaws visible only in tracks while fleeing.

Droppings: Dark brown, longish acorn shape, up to 3/8" thick, 3/8 "-1/2" long, found in sparse woods and forest.

Feeding Grounds: Clearly visible in the winter as trough-shaped spots scraped through the snow in the woods. In the summer: spots dug through the leaves.

Traces on Trees: Strips of bark torn off between 20" and 35" from the ground.

	2 year-old buck		Skull and Jaw

Antlers of the Buck: The buck deer  drops his antlers in the late fall and, beginning in March (April is the high point for this), rubs the velvet off against young softwood trees. The bark is scraped off and branches are broken. In front of the tree you might also find spots where leaves and earth are thrown up and scraped to the rear.

Voice: Deep, loud bellow: "burr, burr, burr, burr" is the scolding of a frightened buck. A lighter, loud "boy, boy" is the doe 's cry.

THE ELK AND MOOSE

THE ELK OR WAPITI

Tracks: See those of the deer.
 
Hoof print: The heavy dotted lines indicate the size of the print, the light dotted lines the extent of the pads. Length—about
31/2, width—about  21/4"-21/2”.   Females about ½”-3/4’ smaller. The dewclaws leave no impression when the animal is walking easily. An elk can jump up to 25 feet.

Droppings: Dung-like or disc-shaped masses in hunting season or when stags are in heat.

Acorn form up to 3/4" long, 3/8"-5/8" thick, females 1/4"-3/4” thick. Brown.

Traces of Eating and Scraping: Tree bark pulled off. Peeled spots higher than three feet and with deep tooth marks. Likes to wallow in mud puddles near the "scratching tree" where he rubs himself and where the mud and hairs stick. "Scraping trees," where he beats his antlers first to remove the velvet and later playfully or excitedly when he is in heat, stand along his usual run. The antlers are shed from February to March; the antler scraping time is midsummer. The higher the marks on the tree and the stronger the tree, the larger and more powerful the stag.

Antlers:

2-year-old buck	8-Pointer	12-Pointer

THE MOOSE

Tracks: See those of the deer.

Hoof print: Much longer soles than the elk, about half the length of the hoof. The tracks are smaller than those of the elk, but the hoofprint can be almost as large. Does not keep to a single run as much as the elk, but instead roams around more and is less shy than the elk.

Droppings: Dung-like or disc-shaped masses in hunting season or when bulls are in heat.

Acorn form about 1/2"-3/4" long, 3/8" thick. Brown for cows, brown and piled in peaked masses for the bull.

Traces of Eating and Scraping: Sheds antlers later than the elk. Traces of antler scraping similar to those of the elk, but on weaker trees and not as high. The moose does not wallow in the mud and therefore has no trees for scratching. The moose kicks up earth and grass when in heat, but the elk does that all the time. The stamping spots of the moose are much more noticeable, lie closer together, and the ground is completely barren and stamped down solid.

Antlers:

1-year-old	6-pointer	two with palmated antlers

THE FOX

Tracks: Four-toed prints. Oval paw about 13/4" long. Nails visible. Prints are clearly long as compared to a dog's pawprint. Leaves tracks either in a straight line or a "rabbit jump."

Droppings: Gray, sausage-shaped, about 3/4" thick and 3"-4" long. Found on rises in the woods or fields. Full of mouse hairs.

Burrow: Earth thrown up in leafy woods. Tunnels are up to 15" in diameter, many openings. Remains of feathers and bones in front of the burrow.

The tracks of a young fox have a certain similarity to those of a cat. However, the imprint of the cat's toes is less distinct; instead there is the print of the whole hairy paw. The most important distinguishing feature of the pawprint of a house cat is that it shows no claws.

The dog's prints are wider than those of the fox and the toe pads are more distinctly formed. The cat leaves prints in a straight line or in sets of four. The dog leaves prints with cross traces or in sets of four.

THE RABBIT

Tracks: Short and long pawprints, the long ones up to 3". The long prints are next to each other, the short ones one behind the other. The long prints often appear in a zigzag or curved form when the rabbit has jumped several feet to the side.

Fleeing rabbit	Dropping

Droppings: Brown (yellow, if old). Flattened on top and beneath, up to 5/8" thick. Found on meadows, paths, and the edge of the woods. Traces of Feeding: Tree bark gnawed off from about 8" to 16" over the ground. Pairs of toothmarks. Longish strips of bark ripped off.

Skull and Jaw: 1/6 natural size.

THE POLECAT

Lives in the woods and near watering spots and farms. Eats snakes, frogs, mice, fowl, and eggs. Tracks: The prints appear in pairs. See those of the badger.

Pawprint: Four-toed, round to oval pawprint up to 11/8" long. The claws are faintly visible.

Droppings: Black, spiral form about 11/8" long and 1/4" thick, smeary. Found on paths through the fields, in the bushes, and along streams.

THE PORCUPINE

Pawprint: Five-toed print with definitely visible claw marks.

Droppings: Bluish-black, cylindrical form about 1/4" to 3/8" thick. Found in the bushes, full of bits of insects and berries.

Tracks: Leaves tracks with cross traces like the badger.

Skull and Jaw:

THE BADGER

Tracks: Five-toed, broadly oval pawprints about 11/4" long and 2" wide. The claws are clearly visible and are long, the paws being broader than they are long. Leaves tracks with cross traces.

Droppings: Gray to blue cylindrical forms, pasty consistency, about 3/4" thick. Found buried in holes in the woods near the burrow, full of bits of insects and berries.

Skull and Jaw:

Burrow: Burrowed through the earth with an obvious furrow. Tunnels up to 16" in diameter. Many exits.

THE SQUIRREL

Tracks: Long and short pairs of five-toed pawprints next to each other. Long prints about 13/4" long. The tracks start and stop suddenly because the squirrel jumps from or into trees. Visible claws.

Droppings: Brown, perfect balls up to -3/16". Found in the woods, parks, etc.

Traces of Feeding: Pine cones are gnawed down to the core by squirrels.

Traces from squirrel gnawing a tree.

Not to be confused with: Traces left by a feeding field mouse.

Traces left by a woodpecker.

MAKING PLASTER MOLDS OF TRACKS

When you come across animal tracks that are pressed into soft ground clearly and perfectly, you might like to preserve your find. If the ground where you find the track is dry and reasonably solid, you can make a plaster mold of the print. This is how to do it.

1. Carefully clear any foreign matter away from the print in the ground. Then encircle the print with a strip of cardboard and clip or tape the ends of the cardboard wall together.



2. Pour freshly prepared plaster of Paris into the area surrounded by the cardboard walls. It may be difficult to judge the amount you will need, but you will learn with experience.
   
   
   
3. When the plaster has hardened, you can take out the whole piece and clean it off. What you then have is a negative of the print, raised or "in relief."
   
   

If you want your cast to be indented, as the track was in the ground, you have one more step; making a positive mold. Brush the surface of the negative mold with soapy water, oil or vaseline.

4. Once again take a strip of cardboard and make a wall around the negative mold. Then pour liquid plaster into the greased mold. Smooth the surface of the mixture with a small piece of board and be sure there are no bubbles remaining. When you have poured in enough plaster to cover the negative mold, let it harden a bit. Then make a loop from a piece of string and embed the ends of the string in the side of the plaster, so that the loop remains on the surface. A few knots at the ends of the string will make it more secure in the plaster. Pour a little more plaster into the mold.
   
   
   
5. When the mixture has hardened, remove the cardboard walls and separate the negative mold from the positive, prying the two casts apart with a table knife. This will be easy if the negative was well greased. Clean the positive well and give it a coat of shellac to help preserve it. If you wish to label the side of the cast, do this before shellacking. Then you can hang the mold by the loop of string.

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